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Development of the Crossbow Design
The crossbow's earliest widespread use was probably in China, during the 3rd century BC or earlier. On single-shot crossbows, one type of latch/trigger mechanism was a very clever precision bronze casting with three moving parts and no springs. Surviving wooden stocks end in a type of pistol grip. Their laths were either of composite construction or made from multiple bamboo slats bound like an automobile leaf spring.Another type of crossbow used by the Chinese since at least 210 BC was a repeating design with a gravity-fed box magazine. The magazine was situated above the bolt track. When the lever at the rear of the crossbow was first raised and then lowered, the box moved forward, caught the string in a wooden recess and drew it to full cock, dropped a bolt into the track and released the string. These crossbows were neither powerful nor accurate, but they could launch a bolt every second or two until the magazine emptied. Poison was sometimes smeared on the points to increase their lethality.
In the manner of hand bows of the same period, pre-14th century Western crossbows were made with wood laths and had longer power strokes than later examples. The most common latch mechanism was a rotating nut of bone, ivory or antler. To achieve greater power, massive "composite" laths made from sinew, horn or baleen, and wood came into use; these were shorter and much stiffer than earlier wood laths. As draw weights increased, new methods and devices for spanning had to be employed, which included the cord and pulley, belt claw, "goat's foot", bending lever, cranequin and windlass. Steel laths later provided even greater power. Spanning devices made reloading a slow process compared with hand bows. Crossbows were more useful for hunting and siegecraft than in open battle, where their slow rate of fire was a serious handicap.
Military Crossbow Features
Features usually found on military and hunting crossbows of the 14th to 16th centuries include a fairly plain, straight stock, a sinew bridle binding the lath to the stock, a cylindrical latch nut and a long iron trigger. It would have either a simple rest or a grooved track to guide the bolt; a stirrup, cocking ring, or cocking lugs would be present, depending on which cocking device was to be used. The stock could be held in the same manner as a firearm, or rested on top of the shoulder and the trigger manipulated with the thumb. The bolt's point usually served as the front sight when aiming.Sporting Crossbow features
Sporting crossbows of the 17th to 19th centuries were used for formal target competitions and hunting. Aperture sights and set triggers were usually present on target crossbows. Bow irons and similar fittings for securing the lath replaced the sinew bridle. Bullet crossbows became popular for small game hunting and informal target shooting, using a double bowstring with a leather pouch to launch a lead, clay or stone balls. The barreled crossbow or slurbow also shot round balls, using a conventional bowstring and a tubular barrel. The range of features found on sporting crossbows of this period is better seen than described; the books by Payne-Gallwey, Stevens, Bilson, Heath and Paterson listed earlier include illustrations.
The crossbow was (and in some cases still is) a common hunting weapon in Southern Asia and parts of Africa. The construction of crossbows used in both areas is similar, in that a relatively weak wood lath is mounted to a straight stock with a bolt track. The latch is simply a notch in the stock; the trigger is a peg that is pushes the string out of the notch from below. On some examples, the stock is horizontally split for part of its length, so that pressing the two halves together pushes the trigger peg upward. Since bolts from these crossbows have little kinetic energy, they are invariably poisoned. Bolts are slivers of hardwood or bamboo, usually with simple leaf fletches.
Medieval Design Features
Crossbows of medieval and renaissance design were very inefficient devices. Modern tests indicate that armor-piercing bolts, while heavier than war arrows, achieved about the same velocity (130-40 fps) from a 700 lb. draw crossbow as an arrow did from a 80 lb. draw longbow. The initial velocity imparted to a crossbow bolt is governed by the velocity of the bow tips as the bolt and string part company. Despite their heavy draw weights, medieval laths were too massive to accelerate rapidly. This was made worse by short draw lengths, which reduced the time available for the tips to accelerate. In addition, the massive bowstrings required for such heavy draw weights robbed energy from the bolt. Balanced against these faults is the higher ballistic coefficient of the short, heavy crossbow bolt, as compared with an arrow. This meant that crossbows often could shoot further and hit harder than hand bows. (see Scientific American 1/85, pp. 104-110)Modern Crossbow Features
Modern hunting crossbows are engineered to launch 400+ grain bolts at initial velocities in excess of 200 fps, with draw weights of about 150 lbs. This provides ample kinetic energy for big game hunting with a far lower draw weight than would be the case with a medieval crossbow of similar power. A longer power stroke coupled with a less massive fiberglass lath makes the difference.Modern target competition with the crossbow falls into two quite different classes. In international 10 meter competition, shooters use a crossbow that marries the elaborate stock and sights of a smallbore target rifle with a short-draw steel lath. The draw weight is well over 100 lbs., so cocking is performed using a long steel bending lever. Bolts are about 6" long and made of unfletched wood; their metal points are threaded like a coarse woodscrew to facilitate removal from the lead plates used as backstops. Field crossbow competition takes place at 30, 40 and 50 yards, with bolts similar to those used in hunting. Because lighter-drawing field target crossbows are shot over greater distances than in international 10 meter events, their stocks and sights must be suited to a broader range of adjustments. Field target crossbows are usually hand-made, often home-made by their users.
Making Bolts
Bolts for modern crossbows require the same basic materials and techniques as conventional arrows. Cut 31" aluminum arrow shafts at the center to produce two bolt shafts. Points or threaded inserts are cemented in at one end, endcaps at the other. Endcaps may be purchased from Horton Mfg. Co. for 26 cents each (the Horton LS6 cap fits 2117 shafts); they can also be made by cutting down a plastic arrow nock. A forked nock suitable for trackless crossbows can be made by enlarging the fork of a plastic arrow nock with a file or a heated metal rod to fit around the larger diameter of crossbow bowstrings.
If a flat endcap is used, it will be easiest to fletch the bolt in a three-place fletching jig. A single-place jig can work, but it will be difficult to accurately position the second and third vanes without a forked nock; one way around this is to install a forked nock, fletch the bolt, then saw and/or file the nock flat. Plastic vanes seem to last longer than feathers on bolts for hunting crossbows, provided the target material used is dense enough to prevent the bolts from burying themselves to the vanes. Feathers and vanes work about equally well with less-powerful target crossbows.
When making bolts for a factory-made crossbow, try to obtain at least one factory bolt to measure its length and weight. Bolt length does not seem to be very critical on tracked crossbows, but you would do well to make your bolts should be the same weight or slightly heavier. Lighter bolts will fly faster, but may shorten the working life of the lath. Bolt weight is a careful compromise, usually determined at the factory through destructive testing, and it would be most cost-effective to accept their recommendation.
Bowstrings
Bowstrings for crossbows, though shorter, are also made in the same manner as for handbows. Obtain the length and number of strands by inspecting a factory string and make yours to the same specifications. If you don't wish to make your own strings, you should still obtain a serving jig and a spool of serving thread for re-serving the centers whenever necessary. Abrasion from track and latch contact wears through crossbow center servings very quickly. Depending on the design of your weapon and the waxes and lubricants used to reduce friction, the center serving may begin to fray after only a few dozen shots; by re-serving the center as needed, a crossbow bowstring can be made to last thousands of shots.
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